FOREWORD
Fortunately
we always say the presence of God upon His love, His papers with the title
"memo", we have been able to finish well. Writing papers aims to meet homework of my study. Success
and has been the completion of the writing is not released from the various
parties that have support, because the author want to thank:
To
both parents who always give our prayers, love, advice and enthusiasm every
time and To friends who have given us the spirit of giving ideas and
participate in writing proposals or papers this scientific.
We
hope that this paper useful for the next generation of faculty of letters in
SMKN 2 Magetan and all readers. Amien.
Writer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................... i
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................
ii
DESCRIPTION THINK
A. Critical thinking
Critical thinking is reflective reasoning about beliefs and actions.[1][2] It is a way of deciding whether a
claim is always true, sometimes true, partly true, or false. Critical thinking
can be traced in Western thought to the Socratic method of Ancient Greece and, in the East, to the Buddhist kalama sutta and Abhidharma. Critical thinking is an important
component of most professions. It is a
part of formal education and is increasingly significant as students progress
through university to graduate education,
although there is debate among educators about its precise meaning and scope.[
1.
Definitions
Different
sources define critical thinking variously as:
·
"the
intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating information gathered from, or
generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication,
as a guide to belief and action"[4]
·
"purposeful,
self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation,
and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that
judgment is based"[5]
Within the philosophical frame of critical social theory,
critical thinking is commonly understood to involve commitment to the social
and political practice of participatory democracy, willingness to imagine or
remain open to considering alternative perspectives, willingness to integrate
new or revised perspectives into our ways of thinking and acting, and
willingness to foster criticality in others.[7][page needed]
2.
History
The critical thinking philosophical
frame has roots in analytic philosophy
and in pragmatist constructivism. Some of its elements date back
over 2,500 years, as in the Buddha's teachings: mainly in
the kalama sutta and the Abhidharma; as well as in the Greek Socratic tradition, which used probing questions
to determine whether clarity and logical consistency could rationally justify
specific claims to knowledge based on (for example) authority.[citation needed]
The critical thinking movement
represented a pragmatic response to expectations and demands for the kind of
thinking required of the modern workforce.[8][page needed]
The critical-theory philosophical frame
traces its roots to the Frankfurt School
of critical social theory that attempted to amend Marxist theory for applicability in 20th-century
Germany. Within this philosophical frame Max Horkheimer introduced critical thinking in
his book Traditional and Critical Theory (1937).
3.
Meaning
Critical thinking clarifies goals,
examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, accomplishes
actions, and assesses conclusions.
"Critical" as used in the
expression "critical thinking" connotes involving skillful judgment
as to truth, merit, etc. "Critical" in this context does not mean
"disapproval" or "negative." There are many positive uses
of critical thinking, for example formulating a workable solution to a complex
personal problem, deliberating as a group about what course of action to take,
or analyzing the assumptions and the quality of the methods used in
scientifically arriving at a reasonable level of confidence about a given
hypothesis.
To add further clarification on what is
meant by thinking critically, Richard Paul (1995) articulated critical thinking
as either weak or strong.
The weak-sense critical thinker is a
highly skilled but selfishly motivated pseudo-intellectual who works to advance
one's personal agenda without seriously considering the ethical consequences
and implications. Conceived as such, the weak-sense critical thinker is often
highly skilled but uses those skills selectively so as to pursue unjust and
selfish ends (Paul, 1995).
Conversely, the strong-sense critical
thinker skillfully enters into the logic of problems and issues to see the
problem for what it is without egocentric or socio-centric bias. Thus
conceived, the strong-sense mind seeks to actively, systematically,
reflectively, and fair-mindedly construct insight with sensitivity to expose
and address the many obstacles that compromise high quality thought and
learning. Using strong critical thinking we might evaluate an argument, for
example, as worthy of acceptance because it is valid and based on true
premises. Upon reflection, a speaker may be evaluated as a credible source of
knowledge on a given topic.
Critical thinking can occur whenever one
judges, decides, or solves a problem; in general, whenever one must figure out
what to believe or what to do, and do so in a reasonable and reflective way.
Reading, writing, speaking, and listening can all be done critically or
uncritically. Critical thinking is crucial to becoming a close reader and a
substantive writer. Expressed in most general terms, critical thinking is
"a way of taking up the problems of life."[10]
4.
Skills
The list of core critical thinking
skills includes observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation,
explanation, and meta-cognition. There is a reasonable level of consensus among
experts [according to
whom?] that an individual or group engaged in strong
critical thinking gives due consideration to establish:
·
Evidence through
observation
·
Relevant criteria for
making the judgment well
·
Applicable methods or
techniques for forming the judgment
·
Applicable theoretical
constructs for understanding the problem and the question at hand
In addition to possessing strong
critical-thinking skills, one must be disposed to engage problems and decisions
using those skills. Critical thinking employs not only logic
but broad intellectual criteria such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance, and fairness.[11]
B.
Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is not immediately obvious and
involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional
step-by-step logic. The term was coined in 1967 by Edward de Bono.
According to de Bono, lateral
thinking deliberately distances itself from standard perceptions of creativity
as either "vertical" logic (the classic method for problem solving:
working out the solution step-by-step from the given data) or
"horizontal" imagination (having a thousand ideas but being
unconcerned with the detailed implementation of them).
1.
Methods
Critical thinking is primarily concerned with
judging the true value of statements and seeking errors. Lateral thinking is
more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person uses
lateral thinking to move from one known idea to creating new ideas. Edward de Bono defines four types of thinking
tools:
·
Idea generating tools
that are designed to break current thinking patterns—routine patterns, the status quo
·
Focus tools that are
designed to broaden where to search for new ideas
·
Harvest tools that are
designed to ensure more value is received from idea generating output
2.
Random Entry Idea
Generating Tool:
The thinker chooses an object at random,
or a noun from a dictionary, and associates it with the area they are thinking
about. For example, if they are thinking about how to improve a website, an
object chosen at random from the environment around them might be a fax machine. A fax machine transmits images over
the phone to paper. Fax machines are becoming rare. People send faxes directly
to phone numbers. Perhaps this could suggest a new way to embed the website's
content in emails and other sites.
3.
Provocation Idea
Generating Tool:
The use any of the provocation techniques—wishful
thinking, exaggeration, reversal,
escape, distortion, or arising. The thinker creates a list of provocations and
then uses the most outlandish ones to move their thinking forward to new ideas.
4.
Movement Techniques:
The thinker develops provocation
operations[clarification needed]
by the following methods: extract a principle, focus on the difference, moment
to moment, positive aspects, special circumstances.
5.
Challenge Idea
Generating Tool:
A
tool which is designed to ask the question "Why?" in a
non-threatening way: why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The
result is a very clear understanding of "Why?" which naturally leads
to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not
just items which are problems. For example, one could challenge the handles on coffee cups. The reason for the handle seems to
be that the cup is often too hot to hold directly. Perhaps coffee cups could be made with insulated finger grips, or
there could be separate coffee cup holders similar to beer
holders.
6.
Concept Fan Idea
Generating Tool:
Ideas carry out concepts. This tool
systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with
a very broad range of ideas to consider.
7.
Disproving:
Based on the idea that the majority is
always wrong (as suggested by Henrik Ibsen and John Kenneth Galbraith),
take anything that is obvious and generally accepted as "goes without
saying", question it, take an opposite view, and try to convincingly
disprove it. This technique is similar to de Bono's "Black Hat" of
the Six Thinking Hats,
which looks at the ways in which something will not work.
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